Types of internal combustion engine
Engines can be classified in many different ways: By the engine cycle used, the layout of the engine, source of energy, the use of the engine, or by the cooling system employed.Engine configurations
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration.Common layouts of engines are:
Reciprocating:
Rotary:
Continuous combustion:
- Gas turbine
- Jet engine (including turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, Rocket, etc.)
Operation
(1) Intake stroke (2) Compression stroke (3) Power stroke and (4) Exhaust stroke
1. Intake stroke: The first stroke of the IC engine is also known as the suction stroke because the piston moves to the maximum volume position (downward direction in the cylinder). The inlet valve opens as a result of piston movement, and the vaporized fuel mixture enters the combustion chamber. The inlet valve closes at the end of this stroke.
2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston starts its movement to the minimum volume position (upward direction in the cylinder) and compresses the fuel mixture. During the compression process, pressure, temperature and the density of the fuel mixture increases.
3. Power stroke: When the piston reaches the minimum volume position, the spark plug ignites the fuel mixture and burns. The fuel produces power that is transmitted to the crank shaft mechanism.
4. Exhaust stroke: In the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. During this stroke, the piston starts its movement in the minimum volume position. The open exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to escape the cylinder. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. Four stroke engines require two revolutions.
Many engines overlap these steps in time; jet engines do all steps simultaneously at different parts of the engines.
Combustion
All internal combustion engines depend on the combustion of a chemical fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as well as by the compression and other factors.The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such assoybean oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas made from other convenient biomass. Recently, experiments have been made with using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium injection cycle.
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental engines with laser ignition have been built.[5]
- Gasoline Ignition Process
- Diesel Ignition Process
Two stroke configuration
Main article: Two-stroke engine
Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward motion of the piston to pressurize fresh charge in thecrankcase, which is then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls.Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and mechanically very simple; however, they are also generally less efficient and more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts. In terms of power per cm³, a two-stroke engine produces comparable power to an equivalent four-stroke engine. The advantage of having one power stroke for every 360° of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720° in a 4 stroke motor) is balanced by the less complete intake and exhaust and the shorter effective compression and power strokes. It may be possible for a two stroke to produce more power than an equivalent four stroke, over a narrow range of engine speeds, at the expense of less power at other speeds.
Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been less fuel-efficient than other types of engines when the fuel is mixed with the air prior to scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the exhaust port. Modern designs (Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel injection which avoids this loss, and are more efficient than comparably sized four-stroke engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern two-stroke engine in order to meet ever more stringent emission standards.
Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors including direct fuel injection, amongst other things. The initial results have produced motors that are much cleaner burning than their traditional counterparts. Two-stroke engines are widely used in snowmobiles, lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard motors, and many motorcycles. Two-stroke engines have the advantage of an increased specific power ratio (i.e. power to volume ratio), typically around 1.5 times that of a typical four-stroke engine.
The largest internal combustion engines in the world are two-stroke diesels, used in some locomotives and large ships. They use forced induction (similar to super-charging, or turbocharging) to scavenge the cylinders; an example of this type of motor is the Wartsila-Sulzer turbocharged two-stroke diesel as used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful internal combustion engine in the world with over 50% thermal efficiency.[6][7][8][9] For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke motors are around 43% thermal efficiency (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area.
Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used.
Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an opposed piston design. Because here gas in- and outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which is, like in the four stroke engine, efficient over a wide range of revolution numbers. Also the thermal efficiency is improved because of lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using at either end of a single bank of cylinders with two crankshafts, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks ofdouble-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and continues to be used for marine engines, both for propulsion and for auxiliary generators.
Wankel
Main article: Wankel engine
Gas turbines
Main article: gas turbine
A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after being compressed in the compressor is heated by burning fuel in it. About ⅔ of the heated air combined with the products of combustion is expanded in a turbine resulting in work output which is used to drive the compressor. The rest (about ⅓) is available as useful work output.Jet engine
Main article: Jet engine
Jet engines take a large volume of hot gas from a combustion process (typically a gas turbine, but rocket forms of jet propulsion often use solid or liquid propellants, and ramjet forms also lack the gas turbine) and feed it through a nozzle which accelerates the jet to high speed. As the jet accelerates through the nozzle, this creates thrust and in turn does useful work.Engine cycle
Two-stroke
Main article: Two-stroke cycle
This system manages to pack one power stroke into every two strokes of the piston (up-down). This is achieved by exhausting and recharging the cylinder simultaneously.The steps involved here are:
- Intake and exhaust occur at bottom dead center. Some form of pressure is needed, either crankcase compression or super-charging.
- Compression stroke: Fuel-air mix is compressed and ignited. In case of diesel: Air is compressed, fuel is injected and self-ignited.
- Power stroke: Piston is pushed downward by the hot exhaust gases.
In a two stroke SI engine a cycle is completed in two strokes of a piston or one complete revolution (360ยบ) of a crankshaft. In this engine the intake and exhaust strokes are eliminated and ports are used instead of valves. In this cycle, the petrol is mixed with lubricant oil, resulting in a simpler, but more environmentally damaging system, as the excess oils do not burn and are left as a residue. As the piston proceeds downward another port is opened, the fuel/air intake port. Air/fuel/oil mixtures come from the carburetor, where it was mixed, to rest in an adjacent fuel chamber. When the piston moves further down and the cylinder doesn't have anymore gases, fuel mixture starts to flow to the combustion chamber and the second process of fuel compression starts. The design carefully considers the point that the fuel-air mixture should not mix with the exhaust, therefore the processes of fuel injection and exhausting are synchronized to avoid that concern. It should be noted that the piston has three functions in its operation:
- The piston acts as the combustion chamber with the cylinder and compresses the air/fuel mixture, receives back the liberated energy, and transfers it to the crankshaft.
- The piston motion creates a vacuum that sucks the fuel/air mixture from the carburetor and pushes it from the crankcase (adjacent chamber) to the combustion chamber.
- The sides of the piston act like the valves, covering and uncovering the intake and exhaust ports drilled into the side of the cylinder wall.
- Cylinder: A cylindrical vessel in which a piston makes an up and down motion.
- Piston: A cylindrical component making an up and down movement in the cylinder.
- Combustion chamber: A portion above the cylinder in which the combustion of the fuel-air mixture takes place.
- Intake and exhaust ports: An intake port allows the fresh fuel-air mixture to enter the combustion chamber and an exhaust port discharges the products of combustion.
- Crankshaft: A shaft which converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into a rotary motion.
- Connecting rod: A rod which connects the piston with the crankshaft.
- Spark plug: An ignition-source located at the cylinder head that is used to initiate the combustion process.
Ignition: With the help of a spark plug, ignition takes place at the top of the stroke. Due to the expansion of the gases the piston moves downwards covering the intake port and causes the fuel-air mixture inside the crank chamber to be compressed. When the piston is at bottom dead center the burnt gases escape from the exhaust port.
At the time the transfer port is uncovered the compressed charge from the crank chamber enters into the combustion chamber through the transfer port. The fresh charge is deflected upwards by a hump provided on the top of the piston and removes the exhaust gases from the combustion chamber. Again the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center and the fuel-air mixture is compressed when the both the exhaust port and transfer ports are covered. The cycle is repeated.
Advantages: • It has no valves or camshaft mechanism, hence simplifying its mechanism and construction • For one complete revolution of the crankshaft, the engine executes one cycle—the 4-stroke executes one cycle per two crankshafts revolutions. • Less weight and easier to manufacture. • High power to weight ratio
Disadvantages: • The lack of lubrication system that protects the engine parts from wear. Accordingly, the 2-stroke engines have a shorter life. • 2-stroke engines do not consume fuel efficiently. • 2-stroke engines produce lots of pollution. • Sometimes part of the fuel leaks to the exhaust with the exhaust gases. In conclusion, based on the above advantages and disadvantages, the 2-stroke engines are supposed to operate in vehicles where the weight of the engine is required to be small, and the it is not used continuously for long periods of time.
Four-stroke
Main article: Four-stroke cycle
The steps involved here are:
- Intake stroke: Air and vaporized fuel are drawn in.
- Compression stroke: Fuel vapor and air are compressed and ignited.
- Combustion stroke: Fuel combusts and piston is pushed downwards.
- Exhaust stroke: Exhaust is driven out. During the 1st, 2nd, and 4th stroke the piston is relying on power and the momentum generated by the other pistons. In that case, a four-cylinder engine would be less powerful than a six or eight cylinder engine.
Split-cycle engines separate the four strokes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust into two separate but paired cylinders. The first cylinder is used for intake and compression. The compressed air is then transferred through a crossover passage from the compression cylinder into the second cylinder, where combustion and exhaust occur. A split-cycle engine is really an air compressor on one side with a combustion chamber on the other.
Previous split-cycle engines have had two major problems - poor breathing (volumetric efficiency) and low thermal efficiency. However, new designs are being introduced that seek to address these problems.
The Scuderi Engine addresses the breathing problem by reducing the clearance between the piston and the cylinder head through various turbo charging techniques. The Scuderi design requires the use of outwardly opening valves that enable the piston to move very close to the cylinder head without the interference of the valves. Scuderi addresses the low thermal efficiency via firing ATDC.
Firing ATDC can be accomplished by using high-pressure air in the transfer passage to create sonic flow and high turbulence in the power cylinder.
Diesel cycle
Main article: Diesel cycle
Otto cycle: Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal combustion engines, that work using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was described for the four-stroke engine. It consists of the same four major steps: Intake, compression, ignition and exhaust.
PV diagram for Otto cycle On the PV-diagram, 1-2: Intake: suction stroke 2-3: Isentropic Compression stroke 3-4: Heat addition stroke 4-5: Exhaust stroke (Isentropic expansion) 5-2: Heat rejection The distance between points 1-2 is the stroke of the engine. By dividing V2/V1, we get:
where r is called the compression ratio of the engine. The efficiency is taken to be:
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Five-stroke
The British company ILMOR presented a prototype of 5-Stroke double expansion engine, having two outer cylinders, working as usual, plus a central one, larger in diameter, that performs the double expansion of exhaust gas from the other cylinders, with an increased efficiency in the gas energy use, and an improved SFC. This engine corresponds to a 2003 US patent by Gerhard Schmitz, and was developed apparently also by Honda of Japan for a Quad engine. This engine has a similar precedent in a Spanish 1942 patent (# P0156621 ), by Francisco Jimeno-Cataneo, and a 1975 patent (# P0433850 ) by Carlos Ubierna-Laciana ( www.oepm.es ). The concept of double expansion was developed early in the history of ICE by Otto himself, in 1879, and a Connecticut (USA) based company, EHV, built in 1906 some engines and cars with this principle, that didn't give the expected results.Six-stroke
First invented in 1883, the six-stroke engine has seen renewed interest over the last 20 or so years.Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular cylinder (Griffin six-stroke, Bajulaz six-stroke, Velozeta six-stroke and Crower six-stroke), firing every three crankshaft revolutions. The systems capture the wasted heat of the four-stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air or water.
The Beare Head and "piston charger" engines operate as opposed-piston engines, two pistons in a single cylinder, firing every two revolutions rather more like a regular four-stroke.
Brayton cycle
Main article: Brayton cycle
Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression, combustion, and expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the engine—giving continuous power. Notably, the combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the Otto cycle, constant volume.
Obsolete
The very first internal combustion engines did not compress the mixture. The first part of the piston downstroke drew in a fuel-air mixture, then the inlet valve closed and, in the remainder of the down-stroke, the fuel-air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for the piston upstroke. These attempts at imitating the principle of a steam engine were very inefficient.Fuels and oxidizers
Engines are often classified by the fuel (or propellant) used.Fuels
Nowadays, fuels used include:- Petroleum:
- Petroleum spirit (North American term: gasoline, British term: petrol)
- Petroleum diesel.
- Autogas (liquified petroleum gas).
- Compressed natural gas.
- Jet fuel (aviation fuel)
- Residual fuel
- Coal:
- Most methanol is made from coal.
- Gasoline can be made from carbon (coal) using the Fischer-Tropsch process
- Diesel fuel can be made from carbon using the Fischer-Tropsch process
- Biofuels and vegoils:
- Peanut oil and other vegoils.
- Biofuels:
- Biobutanol (replaces gasoline).
- Biodiesel (replaces petrodiesel).
- Bioethanol and Biomethanol (wood alcohol) and other biofuels (see Flexible-fuel vehicle).
- Biogas
- Hydrogen (mainly spacecraft rocket engines)
The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easily transportable through the fuel system to the combustion chamber, and that the fuel releases sufficient energy in the form of heat upon combustion to make practical use of the engine.
Diesel engines are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased fuel efficiency over gasoline engines), ships, railway locomotives, and light aircraft. Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars, motorcycles, and mopeds. Note that in Europe, sophisticated diesel-engined cars have taken over about 40% of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biodiesel, wood gas, & charcoal gas. Paraffin and tractor vaporizing oil(TVO) engines are no longer seen.
Hydrogen
Main article: Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle
Hydrogen could eventually replace conventional fossil fuels in traditional internal combustion engines. Alternatively fuel cell technology may come to deliver its promise and the use of the internal combustion engines could even be phased out.Although there are multiple ways of producing free hydrogen, those methods require converting combustible molecules into hydrogen or consuming electric energy. Unless that electricity is produced from a renewable source—and is not required for other purposes— hydrogen does not solve any energy crisis. In many situations the disadvantage of hydrogen, relative to carbon fuels, is its storage. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density (14 times lower than water) and requires extensive insulation—whilst gaseous hydrogen requires heavy tankage. Even when liquefied, hydrogen has a higher specific energy but the volumetric energetic storage is still roughly five times lower than petrol. However, the energy density of hydrogen is considerably higher than that of electric batteries, making it a serious contender as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. The 'Hydrogen on Demand' process (see direct borohydride fuel cell) creates hydrogen as it is needed, but has other issues such as the high price of the sodium borohydride which is the raw material.
Oxidizers
- Compressed air has been commonly used in torpedoes.
- Compressed oxygen, as well as some compressed air, was used in the Japanese Type 93 torpedo. Some submarines are designed to carry pure oxygen. Rockets very often use liquid oxygen.
- Nitromethane is added to some racing and model fuels to increase power and control combustion.
- Nitrous oxide has been used—with extra gasoline—in tactical aircraft and in specially equipped cars to allow short bursts of added power from engines that otherwise run on gasoline and air. It is also used in the Burt Rutan rocket spacecraft.
- Hydrogen peroxide power was under development for German World War II submarines and may have been used in some non-nuclear submarines and was used on some rocket engines (notably Black Arrow and Me-163 rocket plane)
- Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have been used experimentally, but have not been found to be practical.
Engine starting
Main article: Starter motor
An internal combustion engine is not usually self-starting so an auxiliary machine is required to start it. Many different systems have been used in the past but modern engines are usually started by an electric motor in the small and medium sizes or by compressed air in the large sizes.Measures of engine performance
Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways:- energy efficiency
- fuel/propellant consumption (brake specific fuel consumption for shaft engines, thrust specific fuel consumption for jet engines)
- power to weight ratio
- thrust to weight ratio
- Torque curves (for shaft engines) thrust lapse (jet engines)
- Compression ratio for piston engines, overall pressure ratio for jet engines and gas turbines
Energy efficiency
Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—have more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons.Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that isn't translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.
Internal combustion engines are primarily heat engines, and as such their theoretical efficiency can be calculated by idealized thermodynamic cycles. The efficiency of a theoretical cycle cannot exceed that of the Carnot cycle, whose efficiency is determined by the difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures of the engine. The upper operating temperature of a terrestrial engine is limited by the thermal stability of the materials used to construct it. All metals and alloys eventually melt or decompose, and there is significant researching into ceramic materials that can be made with greater thermal stability and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for greater temperature difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures, hence greater thermodynamic efficiency.
The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating under ideal conditions: a frictionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation for infinite time. Real world applications introduce complexities that reduce efficiency. For example, a real engine runs best at a specific load, termed its power band. The engine in a car cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because it is designed for the higher loads required for rapid acceleration. In addition, factors such as wind resistance reduce overall system efficiency. Engine fuel economy is usually measured in the units of miles per gallon (or fuel consumption in liters per 100 kilometers) for automobiles. The volume of hydrocarbon assumes a standard energy content.
Most steel engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37%. Even when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, most engines retain an average efficiency of about 18%-20%.[11][12] Rocket engine efficiencies are better still, up to 70%, because they operate at very high temperatures and pressures and can have very high expansion ratios.[13]
There are many inventions aimed at increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general, practical engines are always compromised by trade-offs between different properties such as efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust emissions, or noise. Sometimes economy also plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also manufacturing and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engine's efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel cost per energy content is the same.
Measures of fuel/propellant efficiency
For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured by calculating the brake specific fuel consumption which measures the mass flow rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced.For internal combustion engines in the form of jet engines, the power output varies drastically with airspeed and a less variable measure is used: thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC), which is the number of pounds of propellant that is needed to generate impulses that measure a pound force-hour. In metric units, the number of grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton-second.
For rockets, TSFC can be used, but typically other equivalent measures are traditionally used, such as specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity.
Air and noise pollution
Air pollution
Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce air pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives of the process are carbon dioxide CO2, water and some soot — also called particulate matter (PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are, however, some additional products of the combustion process that include nitrogen oxides and sulfur and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel-air ratio.Not all of the fuel will be completely consumed by the combustion process; a small amount of fuel will be present after combustion, some of which can react to form oxygenates, such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not initially present in the fuel mixture. The primary causes of this is the need to operate near the stoichiometric ratio for gasoline engines in order to achieve combustion and the resulting "quench" of the flame by the relatively cool cylinder walls, otherwise the fuel would burn more completely in excess air. When running at lower speeds, quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural gas. It reduces the efficiency and increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to stall. Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces the amount of the first two pollutants, but tends to encourage the oxygen and nitrogen in the air to combine to produce nitrogen oxides (NOx) that has been demonstrated to be hazardous to both plant and animal health. Further chemicals released arebenzene and 1,3-butadiene that are also particularly harmful; and not all of the fuel burns up completely, so carbon monoxide (CO) is also produced.
Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventually lead to producing sulfur monoxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust which promotes acid rain. One final element in exhaust pollution is ozone (O3). This is not emitted directly but made in the air by the action of sunlight on other pollutants to form "ground level ozone", which, unlike the "ozone layer" in the high atmosphere, is regarded as a bad thing if the levels are too high. Ozone is broken down by nitrogen oxides, so one tends to be lower where the other is higher.
For the pollutants described above (nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and ozone), there are accepted levels that are set by legislation to which no harmful effects are observed — even in sensitive population groups. For the other three: benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and particulates, there is no way of proving they are safe at any level so the experts set standards where the risk to health is, "exceedingly small".
Noise pollution
Significant contributions to noise pollution are made by internal combustion engines. Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as do aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines create the most intense noise.Idling
Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants when idling so it is desirable to keep periods of idling to a minimum. Many bus companies now instruct drivers to switch off the engine when the bus is waiting at a terminus.In the UK (but applying only to England), the Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) Regulations 2002 (Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 1808)[14] introduced the concept of a "stationary idling offence". This means that a driver can be ordered "by an authorised person ... upon production of evidence of his authorisation, require him to stop the running of the engine of that vehicle" and a "person who fails to comply ... shall be guilty of an offence and be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding level 3 on the standard scale". Only a few local authorities have implemented the regulations, one of them being Oxford City Council.[15]
See also
- Adiabatic flame temperature
- Air-fuel ratio
- Component parts of internal combustion engines
- Crude oil engine - a two stroke engine
- Dynamometer
- Electric vehicle
- Engine test stand - information about how to check an internal combustion engine
- External Combustion Engine
- Fossil fuels
- Gas turbine
- Heat pump
- Deglazing (engine mechanics)
- Diesel engine
- Forced induction
- Indirect injection
- Magnesium injection cycle
- Direct injection
- Turbocharger
- Dieselisation
- Gasoline direct injection
- Hybrid vehicle
- Jet engine
- Petrofuel
- Piston engine
- Reciprocating engine
- Variable displacement
Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/internal-combustion-engine#ixzz276cmiHmM
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